Types of Fallacies
Ad Hominem
An ad hominem is the misbelief that a person is wrong due to an irrelevant personal attack from another person.
1. Person A claims a statement
2. Person B attacks Person A about something that might be irrelevant
3. This means Person A’s claim is false
Example:
John: “Vegetarian people are more healthier than people who eat meat”
Dan: “You are not vegetarian so what you said is wrong”
Explanation: Dan is saying that since John is not a vegetarian, what he said is wrong because he does not follow what he is saying. This is not true because just because John does not follow what he is saying, it does not mean it is wrong.
Appeal to Authority
Appeal to authority is the misbelief that a person’s statement is correct because he or she claims to be an authority or expert on a subject.
1. A person claims to be an authority on a subject
2. That person makes a statement about that subject
3. This means that the person’s statement is true
Example:
Jake says that he is a chemist. He claims that you can melt a diamond by pouring vinegar on it. Jake must be right because he is a chemist.
Explanation: This fallacy is saying that since Jake is a chemist and the subject matter has to deal with chemistry, Jake must be right. This might not be the case because even though Jake is a chemist, he could be wrong in what he is saying.
The Bandwagon
This misbelief is when a person makes a claim just to be accepted or because he or she fears rejection.
1. A person knows a claim is false, but says it anyway because he or she fears the rejection
Example:
Bill knows that smoking cigarettes is bad for him, but his friends don’t think it is. Bill says that smoking isn’t bad in front of his friends.
Explanation: Bill is lying and saying that smoking is not bad because he is in front of his friends. He does not want to be rejected, so he says smoking is not bad, knowing that it actually is.
Confusion Cause and Effect
Confusion cause and effect is the misbelief that when two or events occur together, it is claimed that they caused each other.
1. Event A and B occur together all the time.
2. This means that A caused B
Example:
People say that tall people are good at basketball. This means that if you want to be good at basketball, you have to be tall
Explanation: The fallacy is trying to say that if you want to be good at basketball, you must be tall. This is not always the case because you can be short and also be good at basketball.
False Dilemma
A false dilemma is when there are two statements and a person claims that one must be false, so the other must be true.
1. Either Claim A or Claim B is false
2. Claim A is false
3. Claim B must be true
Example:
1. Oranges must be blue or green
2. Oranges are not green
3. Oranges are blue
Explanation: This fallacy occurs when both claims are completely false, like oranges must be blue or green. The fact the claim says “must” narrows down the choices, even though the choices are wrong. When green is rejected, the oranges are assumed to be blue. This is not true because the initial statement is false.
Hasty Generalization
Hasty generalization is when a person makes a claim based on an observation that occurred in an environment or timeframe that did not have enough variables.
1. A observation is taken from a small population
2. A conclusion is drawn about the small population because of the observation
Example:
John goes to Africa on vacation. He sees a dog with red spots. He goes back home and tells his parents that all dogs in Africa have red spots.
Explanation: Since John went to Africa for the first time and saw a dog with red spots and he assumed that all dogs in Africa have red spot. This might have been a rare occurrence, which means that John’s statement could be false.
Red Herring
The Red Herring fallacy occurs when a topic is being discussed and another irrelevant topic is introduced to divert the attention. It can be caused by confusion or can be intended.
1. Topic A is being discussed
2. Topic B is introduced, claiming to be relevant when it is really not
3. Topic A is not being discussed anymore
Example:
Al and Ken are working on a bridge. The bridge is weak because of the type of metal used, and Al knows that. Ken and Al are discussing why the bridge is weak and Ken questions the type of metal. Al says that is not because of the type of steel, but weak because the workers put it together poorly. Ken goes to question the workers.
Explanation: In this fallacy, Al tries to distract the attention from the type of steel to the workers. When Ken questions the type of metal, Al does not want Ken to look into it, so he directs the topic to the workers, so that Ken does not look more into the type of metal.
Two Wrongs Make a Right
The Two Wrongs Make a Right fallacy is based on the misbelief that when a person does something to another person, that second person is allowed to do that same thing to the first person. It always has to do with an action.
1. Person A does something to Person B
2. Person B can do that same thing to Person A
Example:
1. John hit Jack in the back of the head
2. Jack is allowed to hit John in the back of the head
Explanation: Since John hits Jack in the back of the head, Jack assumes that he is also allowed to hit John in the back of the head. Jack most likely feels that they are even if he does the same thing back to John.
An ad hominem is the misbelief that a person is wrong due to an irrelevant personal attack from another person.
1. Person A claims a statement
2. Person B attacks Person A about something that might be irrelevant
3. This means Person A’s claim is false
Example:
John: “Vegetarian people are more healthier than people who eat meat”
Dan: “You are not vegetarian so what you said is wrong”
Explanation: Dan is saying that since John is not a vegetarian, what he said is wrong because he does not follow what he is saying. This is not true because just because John does not follow what he is saying, it does not mean it is wrong.
Appeal to Authority
Appeal to authority is the misbelief that a person’s statement is correct because he or she claims to be an authority or expert on a subject.
1. A person claims to be an authority on a subject
2. That person makes a statement about that subject
3. This means that the person’s statement is true
Example:
Jake says that he is a chemist. He claims that you can melt a diamond by pouring vinegar on it. Jake must be right because he is a chemist.
Explanation: This fallacy is saying that since Jake is a chemist and the subject matter has to deal with chemistry, Jake must be right. This might not be the case because even though Jake is a chemist, he could be wrong in what he is saying.
The Bandwagon
This misbelief is when a person makes a claim just to be accepted or because he or she fears rejection.
1. A person knows a claim is false, but says it anyway because he or she fears the rejection
Example:
Bill knows that smoking cigarettes is bad for him, but his friends don’t think it is. Bill says that smoking isn’t bad in front of his friends.
Explanation: Bill is lying and saying that smoking is not bad because he is in front of his friends. He does not want to be rejected, so he says smoking is not bad, knowing that it actually is.
Confusion Cause and Effect
Confusion cause and effect is the misbelief that when two or events occur together, it is claimed that they caused each other.
1. Event A and B occur together all the time.
2. This means that A caused B
Example:
People say that tall people are good at basketball. This means that if you want to be good at basketball, you have to be tall
Explanation: The fallacy is trying to say that if you want to be good at basketball, you must be tall. This is not always the case because you can be short and also be good at basketball.
False Dilemma
A false dilemma is when there are two statements and a person claims that one must be false, so the other must be true.
1. Either Claim A or Claim B is false
2. Claim A is false
3. Claim B must be true
Example:
1. Oranges must be blue or green
2. Oranges are not green
3. Oranges are blue
Explanation: This fallacy occurs when both claims are completely false, like oranges must be blue or green. The fact the claim says “must” narrows down the choices, even though the choices are wrong. When green is rejected, the oranges are assumed to be blue. This is not true because the initial statement is false.
Hasty Generalization
Hasty generalization is when a person makes a claim based on an observation that occurred in an environment or timeframe that did not have enough variables.
1. A observation is taken from a small population
2. A conclusion is drawn about the small population because of the observation
Example:
John goes to Africa on vacation. He sees a dog with red spots. He goes back home and tells his parents that all dogs in Africa have red spots.
Explanation: Since John went to Africa for the first time and saw a dog with red spots and he assumed that all dogs in Africa have red spot. This might have been a rare occurrence, which means that John’s statement could be false.
Red Herring
The Red Herring fallacy occurs when a topic is being discussed and another irrelevant topic is introduced to divert the attention. It can be caused by confusion or can be intended.
1. Topic A is being discussed
2. Topic B is introduced, claiming to be relevant when it is really not
3. Topic A is not being discussed anymore
Example:
Al and Ken are working on a bridge. The bridge is weak because of the type of metal used, and Al knows that. Ken and Al are discussing why the bridge is weak and Ken questions the type of metal. Al says that is not because of the type of steel, but weak because the workers put it together poorly. Ken goes to question the workers.
Explanation: In this fallacy, Al tries to distract the attention from the type of steel to the workers. When Ken questions the type of metal, Al does not want Ken to look into it, so he directs the topic to the workers, so that Ken does not look more into the type of metal.
Two Wrongs Make a Right
The Two Wrongs Make a Right fallacy is based on the misbelief that when a person does something to another person, that second person is allowed to do that same thing to the first person. It always has to do with an action.
1. Person A does something to Person B
2. Person B can do that same thing to Person A
Example:
1. John hit Jack in the back of the head
2. Jack is allowed to hit John in the back of the head
Explanation: Since John hits Jack in the back of the head, Jack assumes that he is also allowed to hit John in the back of the head. Jack most likely feels that they are even if he does the same thing back to John.